The Animal Assistance Foundation has a mission to improve the animal welfare in Colorado. This foundation was founded by a woman named Louise C. Harrison in 1975. It was Louise's goal to prevent cruelty to domestic animals. She was always an animal advocate and made many donations to animal organizations. Since it was started the Animal Assistance Foundation has invested $50 million dollars to the well being of animals in the state of Colorado.
One of the foundation's current projects is the Arkansas River Valley Project. My classmates and I were lucky enough to be given the opputunity to take part in this project as researchers. The Animal Assistance Foundation decided to try and reduce the number of feral animals there were in our community.
The foundation, AAF, had a hypothesis that said the more spayed and neutered animals in the area, the less feral (FUN FACT: Feral is another way to say stray or unowned) animals there would be.
Procedure: To test this hypothesis AAF, researched the number of feral dogs and cats in our area. Then they handed out vouchers about getting your animal spayed and neutered. After that, the AAF asked us to collect data about the number of feral dogs and cats in our area. Our job was to go on four different walks over the course of two weeks. AAF wanted to be very careful and avoid any extra variables, so our walks had to be on the same day of the week, the same time of day, and had to be along the same route. During our walks we had to record the number of animals we saw. We were given indexing forms to keep track of our count.
My Data Collection:
#1
Date: April 25th Location: La Junta, CO; Around City Park
Start Time: 5:00 p.m. End Time: 5:30 p.m.
Cat Sightings: Dog Sightings:
Owned: 0 Owned: 6
Feral: 4 Feral: 0
Unknown: 0 Unknown: 0
Squirrels: 5
#2
Date: April 27th Location: La Junta, CO; Around City Park
Start Time: 5:00 p.m. End Time: 5:30 p.m.
Cat Sightings: Dog Sightings:
Owned: 0 Owned: 5
Feral: 3 Feral: 0
Unknown: 0 Unknown: 0
Squirrels: 5
#3
Date: May 2nd Location: La Junta, CO; Around City Park
Start Time: 5:00 p.m. End Time: 5:30 p.m.
Cat Sightings: Dog Sightings:
Owned: 0 Owned: 5
Feral: 4 Feral: 0
Unknown: 1 Unknown: 0
Squirrels: 4
#4
Date: May 4th Location: La Junta, CO; Around City Park
Start Time: 5:00 p.m. End Time: 5:30 p.m.
Cat Sightings: Dog Sightings:
Owned: 1 Owned: 5
Feral: 4 Feral: 1
Unknown: 1 Unknown: 0
Squirrels: 4
Picture of Route:
View Larger Map
Conclusion:
I can't say for sure if I proved AAF'S hypothesis because I don't know what the data was before beginning of the experiement. In my data I only saw 1 feral dog, which is really good. However, I did see a lot of feral cats. I do think the number of feral animals in our community has gone down since AAF started their project. I hope AAF can continue to make a difference in my community and other communities to improve animal welfare.
Wednesday, May 18, 2011
Sunday, May 15, 2011
EVOLUTION
Evolution is a topic that can be very controversial. There are people that believe it is true and people that don't. After some long and hard research I learned a lot about the theory of evolution. Charles Darwin is known for being the "British Scientist who laid the foundation of modern evolutionary theory with his concept of the development of all forms of life through the slow working process of natural selection." Natural selection implies that all living species will adapt to their environment and learn how to survive through different processes known as mutation, genetic drift, migration, and natural selection.
Darwin is credited as the father of evolution and how life came to be as we know it. Little is actually known about how is theories came to be. Darwin attended medical school but then dropped out in favor of going to the ministry. This did not last long as there were two individuals, Adam Sedgwick and John Stevens Henslow, that influenced his thinking. He was sent out on a world wide tour aboard the ship HMS Beagle. Aboard this expedition, he was to document his observations as a naturalist from the different continents around the world. While off the coast of Ecuador sailing threw the Galapagos Islands he noticed that there were similarities and distinct differences between the different species on the separate islands. These differences were used to dis credit Catastrophist thought about creation and that all life came from Noah's Ark after a world wide flood. This is where he developed his idea about The Origion of the Species, that life adapts to its environment through natural selection and "survival of the fittest." Natural Selection is the idea that species adapt to what their environment demands of them through mutation of the gene pool. The trait that enables species to adapt to its environment is passed on to the next generation. This trait becomes dominant for future generations. An example of this is the Galapagos finches Darwin saw near Ecuador. Darwin observed that some birds in the arid environments were better equipped to survive because they could get their food from cactus plants.
Jean- Baptiste Lamarck pre-dated Darwin and put forward an early theory of evolution which assumed that life emerges spontaneously from nonliving matter. This idea was known as spontaneous generation. Lamarck further believed that life forms had the ability to progress and evolve into more complex forms of life such as humans coming from apes. By way of example, the necks of giraffes grew longer to reach the tops of taller trees. Traits could also diminish and disappear through lack of use. "In this way any organ that went unused would tend to shrink with the passing generations." Lamarck once stated that blind cave fish had become blind because their ancestors had not used their eyes. Even so, Lamarck did not consider the inheritance of traits as critical to his theory. Lamarck was credited with loosely grouping different species on a geneological tree presumbaly to demonstrate how life evolved from nothing to what we see in the world today. He arranged animals according to their relationships. His idea emerged out of medieval thought that everything through creation progressed toward perfection. This ordering principle was known as "the scala naturae" (the scale of nature) or "the great chain of being" to describe how life progressed from inanimate objects through simple to more complex life forms and ultimately in religious roots to God. His idea was guided by the influence of natural law and the belief that life forms progress toward higher levels of functioning (macro-evolution).
In addressing evolution, one must consider that there is macro-evolution and micro-evolution. Microevolution is on a much smaller scale. In microevolution only a small group of species is changed. Different types of micro evolution are mutation, genetic drift, migration, and natural selection. Mutations are typically considered harmful. However, there are mutations that will benefit the species to adapt to their environment as noted above with the process of natural selection. Mutation goes hand in hand with natural selection as expressed to provides opportunity for the species to adapt to their environment. The best example to consider, as noted above, is the diffeences observed by Darwin among the birds on the Galapago Islands. Darwin essentially documented that mutations in the gene pool of the birds allowed the different species to adapt to their different environments. Scientists have considered that the fossil record provides the strongest evidence of evolution to date. However, in the thirteenth century, St. Albertus Magnus stated, "Nature does not make (animal) kinds separate without making something intermediate between them; for nature does not pass from extreme to extreme without an intermediate." While some might suggest that this quote is validated by the fossil record, scientists have yet to discover transitional life forms or the elusive "missing link" in the fossil record that connects humans to apes.
Now for my opinion: It is interesting to me that scientists depend upon and state natural law as the ultimate and final authority on the subject of evolution. They tend to forget that it is a theory. Perhaps most noteworthy, to draw a conclusion that the theory of evolution is anything more than supported by evidence to become a fact takes a tremendous leap of faith. In my mind, there is value in understanding what is presented by evolution. However, I am not able to accept it on face value any more than I can believe in the ability to throw all the pieces of a wrist watch in the air and have it land together as a functioning Rolex. There subsequently will never be any way to prove the theory of evolution without making a statement of faith. As a scientist, several questions remain. I would ask the following: How were the laws of nature established? What holds together the seven sisters in the heavens? Is it possible to loose the cords of Orion? (Job 38:31)
WORKS CITED
"Charles Darwin Biography." Classic Literature Library. Classic Literature Library. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/charles-darwin-biography.asp>
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck." MACROEVOLUTION.NET. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://www.macroevolution.net/jean-baptiste-lamarck.html>
"The Scala Naturae." MACROEVOLUTION.NET. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://www.macroevolution.net/scala-naturae.html>
Darwin is credited as the father of evolution and how life came to be as we know it. Little is actually known about how is theories came to be. Darwin attended medical school but then dropped out in favor of going to the ministry. This did not last long as there were two individuals, Adam Sedgwick and John Stevens Henslow, that influenced his thinking. He was sent out on a world wide tour aboard the ship HMS Beagle. Aboard this expedition, he was to document his observations as a naturalist from the different continents around the world. While off the coast of Ecuador sailing threw the Galapagos Islands he noticed that there were similarities and distinct differences between the different species on the separate islands. These differences were used to dis credit Catastrophist thought about creation and that all life came from Noah's Ark after a world wide flood. This is where he developed his idea about The Origion of the Species, that life adapts to its environment through natural selection and "survival of the fittest." Natural Selection is the idea that species adapt to what their environment demands of them through mutation of the gene pool. The trait that enables species to adapt to its environment is passed on to the next generation. This trait becomes dominant for future generations. An example of this is the Galapagos finches Darwin saw near Ecuador. Darwin observed that some birds in the arid environments were better equipped to survive because they could get their food from cactus plants.
Jean- Baptiste Lamarck pre-dated Darwin and put forward an early theory of evolution which assumed that life emerges spontaneously from nonliving matter. This idea was known as spontaneous generation. Lamarck further believed that life forms had the ability to progress and evolve into more complex forms of life such as humans coming from apes. By way of example, the necks of giraffes grew longer to reach the tops of taller trees. Traits could also diminish and disappear through lack of use. "In this way any organ that went unused would tend to shrink with the passing generations." Lamarck once stated that blind cave fish had become blind because their ancestors had not used their eyes. Even so, Lamarck did not consider the inheritance of traits as critical to his theory. Lamarck was credited with loosely grouping different species on a geneological tree presumbaly to demonstrate how life evolved from nothing to what we see in the world today. He arranged animals according to their relationships. His idea emerged out of medieval thought that everything through creation progressed toward perfection. This ordering principle was known as "the scala naturae" (the scale of nature) or "the great chain of being" to describe how life progressed from inanimate objects through simple to more complex life forms and ultimately in religious roots to God. His idea was guided by the influence of natural law and the belief that life forms progress toward higher levels of functioning (macro-evolution).
In addressing evolution, one must consider that there is macro-evolution and micro-evolution. Microevolution is on a much smaller scale. In microevolution only a small group of species is changed. Different types of micro evolution are mutation, genetic drift, migration, and natural selection. Mutations are typically considered harmful. However, there are mutations that will benefit the species to adapt to their environment as noted above with the process of natural selection. Mutation goes hand in hand with natural selection as expressed to provides opportunity for the species to adapt to their environment. The best example to consider, as noted above, is the diffeences observed by Darwin among the birds on the Galapago Islands. Darwin essentially documented that mutations in the gene pool of the birds allowed the different species to adapt to their different environments. Scientists have considered that the fossil record provides the strongest evidence of evolution to date. However, in the thirteenth century, St. Albertus Magnus stated, "Nature does not make (animal) kinds separate without making something intermediate between them; for nature does not pass from extreme to extreme without an intermediate." While some might suggest that this quote is validated by the fossil record, scientists have yet to discover transitional life forms or the elusive "missing link" in the fossil record that connects humans to apes.
Now for my opinion: It is interesting to me that scientists depend upon and state natural law as the ultimate and final authority on the subject of evolution. They tend to forget that it is a theory. Perhaps most noteworthy, to draw a conclusion that the theory of evolution is anything more than supported by evidence to become a fact takes a tremendous leap of faith. In my mind, there is value in understanding what is presented by evolution. However, I am not able to accept it on face value any more than I can believe in the ability to throw all the pieces of a wrist watch in the air and have it land together as a functioning Rolex. There subsequently will never be any way to prove the theory of evolution without making a statement of faith. As a scientist, several questions remain. I would ask the following: How were the laws of nature established? What holds together the seven sisters in the heavens? Is it possible to loose the cords of Orion? (Job 38:31)
WORKS CITED
"Charles Darwin Biography." Classic Literature Library. Classic Literature Library. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/charles-darwin-biography.asp>
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck." MACROEVOLUTION.NET. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://www.macroevolution.net/jean-baptiste-lamarck.html>
"The Scala Naturae." MACROEVOLUTION.NET. Web. 15 May 2011 <http://www.macroevolution.net/scala-naturae.html>
Thursday, March 31, 2011
DNA Sequencing Activity
It is the week back from Spring Break and boy it sure is going slow. This week in Biology we had to separate each base from DNA into a series of threes. This was so we could see the proteins. This was kind of hard to do hahah. We made a lot of mistakes!
The point of this was to see how Abby, Bob, and Carol are alike to Norm. (the normal DNA)
Here is the graph we put together yesterday:
-Abby had almost the same DNA as Norm. There was only one base difference which made a 97% similarity to Norm. Norm had the protein GAG and Abby had GTG. This is know as point mutation. The protein changed from Glu to Val. This makes the molecules hydrophobic.
-Bob also had only one difference from Norm and a 97% similarity. Norm had the protein AAG and Bob had TAG. The protein changed from Lys to the signal that the proteins stops. This makes the protein become to short otherwise known as truncation mutation. This can cause problems in the future.
-Carol has the most difference from Norm. There were 19 differences between the bases which made a 59% similarity to Norm. There isn't really that much difference between their bases. Carol missed a base which set her off from Norm. This is called frameshift mutation. This can cause problems in Carol's future.
This was really interesting. It is amazing how simple DNA and diseases really are. I thought a lot more things had to go wrong for people to get a disease. This was a fun activity.
The point of this was to see how Abby, Bob, and Carol are alike to Norm. (the normal DNA)
Here is the graph we put together yesterday:
-Abby had almost the same DNA as Norm. There was only one base difference which made a 97% similarity to Norm. Norm had the protein GAG and Abby had GTG. This is know as point mutation. The protein changed from Glu to Val. This makes the molecules hydrophobic.
-Bob also had only one difference from Norm and a 97% similarity. Norm had the protein AAG and Bob had TAG. The protein changed from Lys to the signal that the proteins stops. This makes the protein become to short otherwise known as truncation mutation. This can cause problems in the future.
-Carol has the most difference from Norm. There were 19 differences between the bases which made a 59% similarity to Norm. There isn't really that much difference between their bases. Carol missed a base which set her off from Norm. This is called frameshift mutation. This can cause problems in Carol's future.
This was really interesting. It is amazing how simple DNA and diseases really are. I thought a lot more things had to go wrong for people to get a disease. This was a fun activity.
Monday, March 14, 2011
Eugenics
So yes I finally did it. My Eugenics blog! Here it is, I worked really hard on it so I hope you enjoy!
So I had a hard time understanding what exactly eugenics was from the site Mr. Ludwig gave us. So I did what any person would do....I googled it! My definition came from http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&defl=en&q=define:eugenics&sa=X&ei=Lyd0TaiaOJGH0QHdgpjFAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CB8QkAE
What is Eugenics?
Eugenics is the study of methods of improving genetic qualities by selective breeding. Eugenics was used to try and get rid of people that harmed society such as mentally ill, poor, and different races. This was a social movement that involved practices that violated rights to life, privacy, and freedom.
What Were The Social Origins of Eugenics?
- Eugenics started right after the Civil War. With how fast the industry in America was growing people started moving from farms into the city faster then good housing was being built. There were also many immigrants coming from Europe into the United States.
-There was a declining birthrate among the wealthy while the working class was organizing against them. While the wealthy were worried about losing the struggle for existence the working class was reproducing faster then them.
- Many business's were becoming bankrupt. There were a series of depressions that started in 1873 and occurred every decade until the early twentieth century.
-The government started to become involved in social and economic issues. This was called Progressivism. Progressive reformers believed that science could cure everything and make everything okay again. This is what started Eugenics.
-Genetics seemed to explain human problems such as pauperism, alcoholism, prostitution etc.
-Eugenics made people believe that the government wasted to much money to support the disabled. Eugenics said that if you sterilized one disabled adult to keep others from being created it would save future generations a lot of money.
-Eugenicists believed the immigrants coming from Europe, which included Italians and Jews, were troublemakers. They supposedly had data that said the problem was in their genes. Their solution to the problem was " Selective Immigration Restriction."
Scientific Origins of Eugenics:
Francis Galton composed the word "eugenics" in 1883. His version of the word eugenics was called Positive Eugenics. Positive eugenics was said that only the ablest and healthiest people should have children to improve humanity. There is also a Negative Eugenics. This was not letting certain people reproduce. Negative eugenics was favored in the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia.
There was a concern that environmental influences might damage heredity. This would lead to ill health, insanity, early death, and defective offspring. This was made into a degeneracy theory in the early 1700's. This theory was the pre dominant way of thinking until the late 19th Century.
Masturbation was one of the first presented biological theory's as a cause of degeneracy. This led Harry Clay Sharp, a prison physician, to "sterilize" by performing vasectomies on prisoners in 1899. This led to the first eugenic sterilization law in 1907 that mandated compulsory sterilization of degenerates. Scientists believed that "degenerate" was caused not only by masturbation but poisoning and bad environments as well. They also believed that a good environment could cure a degenerate within three generations.
Eugenicists started saying that degenerates should be prevented from breeding. They thought that degenerates should be put in custody in asylums or through sterilization. There were many doctors that felt sterilization was a more humane way of dealing with people that couldn't help themselves. Performing vasectomies and tubal ligation happened a lot. Sterilization let the "infected" participate in society instead of being put in custody at the public's expense. This was not viewed as a punishment because doctors believed that the reason these people were "unfit" was because of an irreversibly degenerate germ plasm.
What research methods were used to study eugenics and what were there flaws?
One way to research eugenics was called a pedigree. Scientists would use pedigrees to trace the inheritance of a trait through a family. Tracing traits was not always easy. There were certain mental and behavior traits that were not easy to find in a person. Another problem was trying to find out if a person had a complex trait such as intelligence.
There were many organizations in the United States that encouraged eugenics research. One major one was the Eugenics Record Office (ERO). A lot of eugenical information was given voluntarily to the ERO on questionnaires filled out by families. Eugenicists would also get data from insane asylums, prisons, orphanages, and homes from the blind to help with their research. The information that the ERO would help gather helped Eugenicists to develop pedigrees. Back then they didn't have DNA to help follow trait inheritance through families. This made their pedigrees inaccurate sometimes.
There were many flaws in the research of eugenics that included:
-Reification: This is when complex traits are treated as if they are a single entity
-Poor survey and statistical methods: Eugenics researchers could not interview family members going back further then two or three generations to see who had the inherited trait. Hospitals did not keep very good medical records so some pedigrees were completed on second- hand reporting or sometimes hearsay.
-False Quantification: This is the assumption that if you can produce a numerical value then it must be valid. One example is on an intelligence test.
-Social and Environmental Influences: Eugenicists would not take all influences into consideration when tracing traits.
How did eugenics research impact American society?
Eugenics caused marriage laws, sterilization laws, and immigration restriction in America.
There were laws that forbid people to marry of different races in America from the Colonial Period to the mid 20th century. In the early 20th century, the eugenics movement supplied arguments to support these marriage laws. One argument was known as miscegenation. Miscegenation said that there were biological dangers if races were mixed.
Legally-mandated sterilization was the most radical policy supported by the eugenics movement. The Model Law, published in 1914, proposed authorization to sterilize the "socially inadequate." The people included in this were the feebleminded, insane, blind, deaf, criminalistic, and many others. When the Model Law was published twelve states had enacted sterilization laws. By 1924 around 3,000 people had been involuntarily sterilized in America. (FACT: 2,500 of these people were in California.) Eventually more then 60,000 people were involuntarily sterilized in America.
There were many immigration laws in America. These laws were set up to restrict who could come into the country. Eugenicists started to provide biological arguments to support immigration restriction. They said that these "inferior stock" would have a major impact on society.
So you are probably wondering where I learned everything I know about Eugenics. Well I went to the Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement. If you're looking for more information on eugenics click on this link: http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/
Well I am finally done. This blog has taken me a long time to finish but here it is! I am so glad to be done. Other then learning about Eugenics I figured out some things I could do to help me figure out things I don't understand when I first read it. Well the first thing you can do is try re reading it out loud to your self a couple times. Usually the words become less jumbled. And if that doesn't help you can always look at other students blogs. This really helped me! (Thank you Leigh and Audi!) Well I am glad this blog is over. Now hopefully you won't see another blog until after Spring Break!
-To check out Audi's blog go to http://4acre.wordpress.com/!
-To check out Leigh's blog go to http://leighsbiologyblog.blogspot.com/
-
So I had a hard time understanding what exactly eugenics was from the site Mr. Ludwig gave us. So I did what any person would do....I googled it! My definition came from http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&defl=en&q=define:eugenics&sa=X&ei=Lyd0TaiaOJGH0QHdgpjFAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CB8QkAE
What is Eugenics?
Eugenics is the study of methods of improving genetic qualities by selective breeding. Eugenics was used to try and get rid of people that harmed society such as mentally ill, poor, and different races. This was a social movement that involved practices that violated rights to life, privacy, and freedom.
What Were The Social Origins of Eugenics?
- Eugenics started right after the Civil War. With how fast the industry in America was growing people started moving from farms into the city faster then good housing was being built. There were also many immigrants coming from Europe into the United States.
-There was a declining birthrate among the wealthy while the working class was organizing against them. While the wealthy were worried about losing the struggle for existence the working class was reproducing faster then them.
- Many business's were becoming bankrupt. There were a series of depressions that started in 1873 and occurred every decade until the early twentieth century.
-The government started to become involved in social and economic issues. This was called Progressivism. Progressive reformers believed that science could cure everything and make everything okay again. This is what started Eugenics.
-Genetics seemed to explain human problems such as pauperism, alcoholism, prostitution etc.
-Eugenics made people believe that the government wasted to much money to support the disabled. Eugenics said that if you sterilized one disabled adult to keep others from being created it would save future generations a lot of money.
-Eugenicists believed the immigrants coming from Europe, which included Italians and Jews, were troublemakers. They supposedly had data that said the problem was in their genes. Their solution to the problem was " Selective Immigration Restriction."
Scientific Origins of Eugenics:
Francis Galton composed the word "eugenics" in 1883. His version of the word eugenics was called Positive Eugenics. Positive eugenics was said that only the ablest and healthiest people should have children to improve humanity. There is also a Negative Eugenics. This was not letting certain people reproduce. Negative eugenics was favored in the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia.
There was a concern that environmental influences might damage heredity. This would lead to ill health, insanity, early death, and defective offspring. This was made into a degeneracy theory in the early 1700's. This theory was the pre dominant way of thinking until the late 19th Century.
Masturbation was one of the first presented biological theory's as a cause of degeneracy. This led Harry Clay Sharp, a prison physician, to "sterilize" by performing vasectomies on prisoners in 1899. This led to the first eugenic sterilization law in 1907 that mandated compulsory sterilization of degenerates. Scientists believed that "degenerate" was caused not only by masturbation but poisoning and bad environments as well. They also believed that a good environment could cure a degenerate within three generations.
Eugenicists started saying that degenerates should be prevented from breeding. They thought that degenerates should be put in custody in asylums or through sterilization. There were many doctors that felt sterilization was a more humane way of dealing with people that couldn't help themselves. Performing vasectomies and tubal ligation happened a lot. Sterilization let the "infected" participate in society instead of being put in custody at the public's expense. This was not viewed as a punishment because doctors believed that the reason these people were "unfit" was because of an irreversibly degenerate germ plasm.
What research methods were used to study eugenics and what were there flaws?
One way to research eugenics was called a pedigree. Scientists would use pedigrees to trace the inheritance of a trait through a family. Tracing traits was not always easy. There were certain mental and behavior traits that were not easy to find in a person. Another problem was trying to find out if a person had a complex trait such as intelligence.
There were many organizations in the United States that encouraged eugenics research. One major one was the Eugenics Record Office (ERO). A lot of eugenical information was given voluntarily to the ERO on questionnaires filled out by families. Eugenicists would also get data from insane asylums, prisons, orphanages, and homes from the blind to help with their research. The information that the ERO would help gather helped Eugenicists to develop pedigrees. Back then they didn't have DNA to help follow trait inheritance through families. This made their pedigrees inaccurate sometimes.
There were many flaws in the research of eugenics that included:
-Reification: This is when complex traits are treated as if they are a single entity
-Poor survey and statistical methods: Eugenics researchers could not interview family members going back further then two or three generations to see who had the inherited trait. Hospitals did not keep very good medical records so some pedigrees were completed on second- hand reporting or sometimes hearsay.
-False Quantification: This is the assumption that if you can produce a numerical value then it must be valid. One example is on an intelligence test.
-Social and Environmental Influences: Eugenicists would not take all influences into consideration when tracing traits.
How did eugenics research impact American society?
Eugenics caused marriage laws, sterilization laws, and immigration restriction in America.
There were laws that forbid people to marry of different races in America from the Colonial Period to the mid 20th century. In the early 20th century, the eugenics movement supplied arguments to support these marriage laws. One argument was known as miscegenation. Miscegenation said that there were biological dangers if races were mixed.
Legally-mandated sterilization was the most radical policy supported by the eugenics movement. The Model Law, published in 1914, proposed authorization to sterilize the "socially inadequate." The people included in this were the feebleminded, insane, blind, deaf, criminalistic, and many others. When the Model Law was published twelve states had enacted sterilization laws. By 1924 around 3,000 people had been involuntarily sterilized in America. (FACT: 2,500 of these people were in California.) Eventually more then 60,000 people were involuntarily sterilized in America.
There were many immigration laws in America. These laws were set up to restrict who could come into the country. Eugenicists started to provide biological arguments to support immigration restriction. They said that these "inferior stock" would have a major impact on society.
So you are probably wondering where I learned everything I know about Eugenics. Well I went to the Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement. If you're looking for more information on eugenics click on this link: http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/
Well I am finally done. This blog has taken me a long time to finish but here it is! I am so glad to be done. Other then learning about Eugenics I figured out some things I could do to help me figure out things I don't understand when I first read it. Well the first thing you can do is try re reading it out loud to your self a couple times. Usually the words become less jumbled. And if that doesn't help you can always look at other students blogs. This really helped me! (Thank you Leigh and Audi!) Well I am glad this blog is over. Now hopefully you won't see another blog until after Spring Break!
-To check out Audi's blog go to http://4acre.wordpress.com/!
-To check out Leigh's blog go to http://leighsbiologyblog.blogspot.com/
-
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
DNA Fun!
So I made some flashcards of DNA terms to help with the quiz we have on Friday. I actually feel ready for this quiz! I know your surprised right now! Here is the link!
http://quizlet.com/4700339/dna-to-proteins-flash-cards/
http://quizlet.com/4700339/dna-to-proteins-flash-cards/
Monday, March 7, 2011
Understanding Pedigrees
So we took a in Biology about Pedigrees. Well I don't think I did so good.(I know I never do good on biology quizzes! I can hear Mr. Ludwig chuckling right now) After not doing so well I think I need to prove that I did learn about Pedigrees and family diseases. I did this blog to try and help bring my grade up a little.
To me Pedigrees look like family trees. Well...thats basically what they are. The official description is pedigrees are used to show family histories of certain diseases. The three ways diseases can be passed through a family are:
Autosomal dominant means that one parent has a gene with the disease and the other parent doesn't. The chance that each child will get this disease is 50-50. If there is an infected person then that means one of their parents was infected also. Autosomal dominant diseases show up in every generation. Males and females are each likely to be infected.
The question in the quiz about this pedigree was:
What kind of inheritance pattern is demonstrated in this pedigree? How do you know? Give an example of a human disease that is inherited this way.
My answer was partially right. I said it was autosomal dominant. I knew this because the disease did not skip a generation. I had no idea about what diseases could be inherited this way though. Now I found out that some diseases that are dominant are Tuberous Sclerosis, Myotonic Dystrophy, Huntington's disease, Achondroplasia, and Neurofibromatosis.
Another Autosomal Dominant Pedigree:
Autosomal recessive disease means that two copies of an abnormal gene must be present for a disease to be passed on. This gives each child, born to parents that each have an autosomal recessive gene, a 25% chance risk of being infected with the disease. There is a 50% chance of a child inheriting one abnormal gene, which would make the child a carrier. (FACT: The child that is born with to abnormal genes does not mean they will be infected with the gene. It means they have a risk of being infected.) Both sexes are equally affected.
The question on the quiz was the same as the first question. Again I got the first part right in saying that this pedigree is autosomal recessive. I know this because the disease skips a generation. On this one I still didn't know any diseases. Now I know that some autosomal recessive diseases are cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Tay Sachs disease, and gaucher disease.
Another Autosomal Recessive Pedigree:
Sex Linked can also be described as X linked. This refers to very few recessive genes that reside on the X chromosome. Men are mainly affected by sex linked diseases. If a father has a disease he will pass it on to his daughter. The daughter then becomes a carrier. Her sons have a 50% chance of getting the disease.
The question on the quiz was the same as the first two. Except my answer was autosomal recessive, when it actually is Sex Linked. I still didn't know and diseases. Now I know some Sex Linked diseases are color blindness, Hunter's disease, Fabry's disease, and menkes disease.
Another example of a Sex Linked Pedigree:
Well I have learned a lot about Pedigrees and I hope this shows it! Stay tuned for a blog about Eugenics! It is coming I promise! hahah
To me Pedigrees look like family trees. Well...thats basically what they are. The official description is pedigrees are used to show family histories of certain diseases. The three ways diseases can be passed through a family are:
- Autosomal Dominant
- Autosomal Recessive
- Sex Linked
Autosomal dominant means that one parent has a gene with the disease and the other parent doesn't. The chance that each child will get this disease is 50-50. If there is an infected person then that means one of their parents was infected also. Autosomal dominant diseases show up in every generation. Males and females are each likely to be infected.
What kind of inheritance pattern is demonstrated in this pedigree? How do you know? Give an example of a human disease that is inherited this way.
My answer was partially right. I said it was autosomal dominant. I knew this because the disease did not skip a generation. I had no idea about what diseases could be inherited this way though. Now I found out that some diseases that are dominant are Tuberous Sclerosis, Myotonic Dystrophy, Huntington's disease, Achondroplasia, and Neurofibromatosis.
Another Autosomal Dominant Pedigree:
Autosomal recessive disease means that two copies of an abnormal gene must be present for a disease to be passed on. This gives each child, born to parents that each have an autosomal recessive gene, a 25% chance risk of being infected with the disease. There is a 50% chance of a child inheriting one abnormal gene, which would make the child a carrier. (FACT: The child that is born with to abnormal genes does not mean they will be infected with the gene. It means they have a risk of being infected.) Both sexes are equally affected.
Another Autosomal Recessive Pedigree:
Sex Linked can also be described as X linked. This refers to very few recessive genes that reside on the X chromosome. Men are mainly affected by sex linked diseases. If a father has a disease he will pass it on to his daughter. The daughter then becomes a carrier. Her sons have a 50% chance of getting the disease.
The question on the quiz was the same as the first two. Except my answer was autosomal recessive, when it actually is Sex Linked. I still didn't know and diseases. Now I know some Sex Linked diseases are color blindness, Hunter's disease, Fabry's disease, and menkes disease.
Another example of a Sex Linked Pedigree:
Well I have learned a lot about Pedigrees and I hope this shows it! Stay tuned for a blog about Eugenics! It is coming I promise! hahah
Thursday, March 3, 2011
DNA Extraction from Wheat Germ
Yesterday in Biology we did a lab where we extracted DNA from wheat germ. Yes wheat germ does have DNA! I was suprised too!Well I worked with Leigh and we had a lot of fun.
Here was what we did and learned during the experiment:
1. Place 1 Gram of raw wheat germ in a 50 ml test tube.
2.Add 20 ml of hot tap water and mix constantly for 3 minutes.
Observations: After mixing the two together we thought the mixture looked like watery bread. The water turned a cloudy color.
3. All 1 ml (or a drop) of 1/4 teaspoon of detergent and mix gently every minute for 5 minutes.(this means to stir for a couple seconds then let sit for a minute for 5 minutes) Try not to create foam.
Observations: After we added the detergent the mixture turned yellow. It kind of looked like chunky Mountain Dew.
-At this step Kyle helped us understand that the cell membrane is dissolving.
4.Remove any foam that may have collected.
5. VERY SLOWLY pour 14ml of alcohol down the test tube at an angle. It needs to form a layer on top of the mixture. Don't mix the two layers together. The DNA forms a solid at the line between the water and alcohol. If the two layers mix the DNA will not precipitate.(Form a solid-Thanks for explaining that word Michael!)
Observations: After adding the alcohol four layers form in the test tube. There is a wheat layer, detergent layer, a white filmy layer, and the alcohol.
6. Let the test tube sit for a couple minutes. You will start seeing something white, stringy, and filmy.
- At this step the DNA precipitates at the line between the water and alcohol. Another way of saying this is forming a solid at the line between the water and alcohol. (Thanks for helping me understand that word Michael!) The solid that is being made is DNA(that's the white filmy layer!)
7. Use a wooden stick to take out the DNA.
-To me the DNA looked way different when we took it out of the tube. In the tube is was white and filmy, but out of the tube it looked like a "big booger!"
Self Analysis: I had a lot of fun with Leigh doing this lab. It didn't take a long time and it was really easy to understand. One thing I learned is wheat germ has DNA! I had a lot of fun with this lab.
Here was what we did and learned during the experiment:
1. Place 1 Gram of raw wheat germ in a 50 ml test tube.
2.Add 20 ml of hot tap water and mix constantly for 3 minutes.
Observations: After mixing the two together we thought the mixture looked like watery bread. The water turned a cloudy color.3. All 1 ml (or a drop) of 1/4 teaspoon of detergent and mix gently every minute for 5 minutes.(this means to stir for a couple seconds then let sit for a minute for 5 minutes) Try not to create foam.
Observations: After we added the detergent the mixture turned yellow. It kind of looked like chunky Mountain Dew.
-At this step Kyle helped us understand that the cell membrane is dissolving.
4.Remove any foam that may have collected.
5. VERY SLOWLY pour 14ml of alcohol down the test tube at an angle. It needs to form a layer on top of the mixture. Don't mix the two layers together. The DNA forms a solid at the line between the water and alcohol. If the two layers mix the DNA will not precipitate.(Form a solid-Thanks for explaining that word Michael!)
Observations: After adding the alcohol four layers form in the test tube. There is a wheat layer, detergent layer, a white filmy layer, and the alcohol.6. Let the test tube sit for a couple minutes. You will start seeing something white, stringy, and filmy.
- At this step the DNA precipitates at the line between the water and alcohol. Another way of saying this is forming a solid at the line between the water and alcohol. (Thanks for helping me understand that word Michael!) The solid that is being made is DNA(that's the white filmy layer!)
7. Use a wooden stick to take out the DNA.
-To me the DNA looked way different when we took it out of the tube. In the tube is was white and filmy, but out of the tube it looked like a "big booger!"Self Analysis: I had a lot of fun with Leigh doing this lab. It didn't take a long time and it was really easy to understand. One thing I learned is wheat germ has DNA! I had a lot of fun with this lab.
Friday, February 4, 2011
Frozen Angels
So its Friday. I'm so glad this week is almost done. I think if I work on my Eugenics blog today I will go crazy so I decided to do a quick review blog.
Last week in class we watched a video called Frozen Angels. It was all about pregnancy. It talked about surrogacy and donating eggs and sperm. The video showed us real life situations of a surrogate mother and parents that were getting her baby. It also talked to woman that donate their eggs to other couples.
I usually consider myself a person that is king and giving. But I don't know if I could give my eggs or carry a baby to term for another mother. There is a big pay day for people who do but I don't think I can. I do have a lot of respect for the people that do do these things. It must be a great feeling to provide a child to parents that can't have children. There must be a great feeling to provide a home for a Mother's baby when she can't provide the home for the babies first nine months herself. I know the people that can't have their own kids or carry their own to term must be very grateful to the people that provide the opportunity to have kids.
I can't imagine having a bunch of kids out there and I didn't know where they were or who they are or who they grew up to be.
I think the people who do donate their eggs or carry a baby must be very strong. There was one surrogate mother on the video that said she had no attachment to the baby she was carrying. After spending nine months very close together I think I would be very attached.
One thing I did learn from this video is I have a deep respect for the people that give up their eggs and carry babies for other people.
Last week in class we watched a video called Frozen Angels. It was all about pregnancy. It talked about surrogacy and donating eggs and sperm. The video showed us real life situations of a surrogate mother and parents that were getting her baby. It also talked to woman that donate their eggs to other couples.
I usually consider myself a person that is king and giving. But I don't know if I could give my eggs or carry a baby to term for another mother. There is a big pay day for people who do but I don't think I can. I do have a lot of respect for the people that do do these things. It must be a great feeling to provide a child to parents that can't have children. There must be a great feeling to provide a home for a Mother's baby when she can't provide the home for the babies first nine months herself. I know the people that can't have their own kids or carry their own to term must be very grateful to the people that provide the opportunity to have kids.
I can't imagine having a bunch of kids out there and I didn't know where they were or who they are or who they grew up to be.
I think the people who do donate their eggs or carry a baby must be very strong. There was one surrogate mother on the video that said she had no attachment to the baby she was carrying. After spending nine months very close together I think I would be very attached.
One thing I did learn from this video is I have a deep respect for the people that give up their eggs and carry babies for other people.
Tuesday, February 1, 2011
Mouse Cloning with Mimi
Today Mr. Ludwig sent us a link on Edmodo about cloning. I'm not gonna lie I was kind of hesitant to do it because I thought it would be boring. It was actually a lot of fun! I'm going to run you through the process that I went through to clone the mouse Mimi.
Mimi is a brown female mouse. Our egg cell doner is a black mouse named Megdo. Our surrogate mother, that the Mimi clone will grow in, is a white mouse named Momi.
The other tools we need to clone Mimi are:
-Microscope
-Petri dishes
-Sharp Pipette
-Blunt Pipette
-Chemical that will stimulate cell division
Here we go with the cloning!
Step 1: Isolate the doner cells from Mimi and Megdo
We took a somatic cell from Mimi and an egg cell from Megdo and placed them in petri dishes. (FUN FACT: Mimi's somatic cell is a cumulus cell. Cumulus cells can be found in the layer that surround and nourish the egg!)
Step 2: Remove the nucleus from the egg cell.
We put the petri dish with the egg cell in it under the microscope. Using a blunt pipette we held the cell in place. (the blunt pipette keeps it from moving) Then we sucked the nucleas out of the cell using a sharp pipette. (FUN FACT: When you remove the nucleas from an egg cell it is called enucleation.)
Step 3: Transfer the somatic cell nucleus into the enucleated cell.
We moved the enucleated egg cell to a "Nuclear Transfer Dish." Then we moved the somatic cell into the same dish. After putting the "Nuclear Transfer Dish" under the microscope we used the sharp pipette to take the nucleus out of the somatic cell and into the enucleated egg cell.
Now the new DNA and the egg cell need time to get used to each other. The DNA needs time so it believes that it is a DNA in an egg cell.
Step 4: Stimulate Cell Division
The next we thing we did was start mitosis in the petri dish. We added a drop of liquid chemical that copies the things when an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm cell. Then we had to wait for the cell to divide in the dish. It created a ball of 16 cells in the petri dish.
Step 5: Implant the Embryo
Next we placed the embryo inside Momi. (Momi is the surrogate mother)The embryo continues to gain cell number in the womb. The cells divide into various tissue types.
Step 6: Deliver the Baby
Finally, we delivered the baby clone from Momi! It was a brown mouse that looked just like Mimi.
Here is where you can go to clone Mimi! http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/clickandclone/
FUN FACT: In 1998 scientists actually completed this procedure! The scientists learned that the time it took for the DNA to get used to the egg cell was very crucial. Without that time the embryo could not fully develop.
I decided to do some more research on cloning:
The article I looked at was http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/
When cloning happens it is creating an organism that has an exact genetic copy of another organism. Every strand of DNA in the two organisms is exactly the same. (FUN FACT: Identical twins are considered clones created naturally)
There are two ways to clone:
Artificial Embryo Twining- In this cloning, technology copies the process of creating twins. When twins are made the zygote divides into a two-celled embryo. The cells continue dividing on their own and then make two individuals in the mom. They are identical because they came from the zygote. This is Artificial Embryo Twining, it's just in a petri dish. An early embryo is manually separated into individual cells. This cell allows each cell to develop on its own. Then they get put in the surrogate mother. They are identical because each cell came from the same zygote.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer- (FUN FACT: This was the method that Dolly the Sheep was cloned with!) While cloning Dolly the sheep the scientists isolated a somatic cell from an adult female sheep. Then they transfered the nucleas from the somatic cell to an egg cell. (The nucleas had been removed from the egg cell.) After the scientists messed with it some it started to behave like a zygote. After developing to an embryo it was placed in the surrogate mother.
Well this blog took me a long time to complete! Well here it is. The final thing I learned is cloning is very very very complicated!
Mimi is a brown female mouse. Our egg cell doner is a black mouse named Megdo. Our surrogate mother, that the Mimi clone will grow in, is a white mouse named Momi.
The other tools we need to clone Mimi are:
-Microscope
-Petri dishes
-Sharp Pipette
-Blunt Pipette
-Chemical that will stimulate cell division
Here we go with the cloning!
Step 1: Isolate the doner cells from Mimi and Megdo
We took a somatic cell from Mimi and an egg cell from Megdo and placed them in petri dishes. (FUN FACT: Mimi's somatic cell is a cumulus cell. Cumulus cells can be found in the layer that surround and nourish the egg!)
Step 2: Remove the nucleus from the egg cell.
We put the petri dish with the egg cell in it under the microscope. Using a blunt pipette we held the cell in place. (the blunt pipette keeps it from moving) Then we sucked the nucleas out of the cell using a sharp pipette. (FUN FACT: When you remove the nucleas from an egg cell it is called enucleation.)
Step 3: Transfer the somatic cell nucleus into the enucleated cell.
We moved the enucleated egg cell to a "Nuclear Transfer Dish." Then we moved the somatic cell into the same dish. After putting the "Nuclear Transfer Dish" under the microscope we used the sharp pipette to take the nucleus out of the somatic cell and into the enucleated egg cell.
Now the new DNA and the egg cell need time to get used to each other. The DNA needs time so it believes that it is a DNA in an egg cell.
Step 4: Stimulate Cell Division
The next we thing we did was start mitosis in the petri dish. We added a drop of liquid chemical that copies the things when an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm cell. Then we had to wait for the cell to divide in the dish. It created a ball of 16 cells in the petri dish.
Step 5: Implant the Embryo
Next we placed the embryo inside Momi. (Momi is the surrogate mother)The embryo continues to gain cell number in the womb. The cells divide into various tissue types.
Step 6: Deliver the Baby
Finally, we delivered the baby clone from Momi! It was a brown mouse that looked just like Mimi.
Here is where you can go to clone Mimi! http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/clickandclone/
FUN FACT: In 1998 scientists actually completed this procedure! The scientists learned that the time it took for the DNA to get used to the egg cell was very crucial. Without that time the embryo could not fully develop.
I decided to do some more research on cloning:
The article I looked at was http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/
When cloning happens it is creating an organism that has an exact genetic copy of another organism. Every strand of DNA in the two organisms is exactly the same. (FUN FACT: Identical twins are considered clones created naturally)
There are two ways to clone:
Artificial Embryo Twining- In this cloning, technology copies the process of creating twins. When twins are made the zygote divides into a two-celled embryo. The cells continue dividing on their own and then make two individuals in the mom. They are identical because they came from the zygote. This is Artificial Embryo Twining, it's just in a petri dish. An early embryo is manually separated into individual cells. This cell allows each cell to develop on its own. Then they get put in the surrogate mother. They are identical because each cell came from the same zygote.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer- (FUN FACT: This was the method that Dolly the Sheep was cloned with!) While cloning Dolly the sheep the scientists isolated a somatic cell from an adult female sheep. Then they transfered the nucleas from the somatic cell to an egg cell. (The nucleas had been removed from the egg cell.) After the scientists messed with it some it started to behave like a zygote. After developing to an embryo it was placed in the surrogate mother.
Well this blog took me a long time to complete! Well here it is. The final thing I learned is cloning is very very very complicated!
Thursday, December 16, 2010
Enzyme Lab and Graphs
I think the week we did the Enzyme Lab was the most confused I have ever been in Biology. I have been putting this blog off for awhile but I know my grade depends on getting it done, so here it is.
Our group had a simple setup. (or so Michael said, didn't seem that simple to me) We mixed 3 ml of water with 3 ml of hydrogen peroxide. We added the enzyme yeast to make a chemical reaction that would make oxygen. The yeast, our enzyme, breaks the oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide and releases the oxygen into the air. Using a pressure probe we measured the pressure coming from the chemical reaction. We did our experiment three different ways. In the first we changed the amount of enzyme we put in. In the second we changed the temperature of the solution that we put the enzyme in to make the reaction. In the third experiment we changed the water in the solution to a pH solution. We did each experiment 3 times so we could calculate accurate data for each experiment.
Here are the different graphs we used to collect our data from the experiment.
In this graph we changed the amount of enzyme that we added to the solution. Or a simpler way to say it!...We changed the amount of drops we added to the mixture in the test tube. (10, 20, 30, or 40 drops.) The graph has a constant slope. I'm going to say what this means in two ways.
SIMPLE WAY: The more enzyme thats in the solution the more pressure there is.
SMART WAY: The speed at which the reaction occurs is a direct result of the ratio of the enzyme to the solution. (thank you Michael for helping me come up with that! =])
In this graph we changed the temperature of the solution where the reaction is taking place. The simple explanation....We changed the temperature of the stuff in the test tube. (0, 25, 38, or 80 degrees Celsius.) We kept the yeast at 25 drops every time.
From this graph we noted that freezing the solution at 0 degrees Celsius and heating it up to 80 degrees Celsius was not good on the reaction. When the temperature got to hot the graph decreased rapidly. This is because when there is to much heat is causes the enzymes to become denatured. (FUN FACT: Denatured means the shape changed...you know you can learn a lot looking at other peoples blogs.) We found out the best temperature for making oxygen was between 25 and 38 degrees Celsius. This is where the highest rate of reaction occurred.
Ok this was the part in the experiment that I was really confused. So I decided to look at my fellow group members blogs( Michael and Kyle H) to try and understand what went on better. Well....that made me more confused. Kyle said that the graph was messed up because Sierra(She was also in our group) couldn't measure out drops right....So there was one thing they had in common so I am going to talk about that.
In this graph we changed the 3ml of water in the solution to 3 ml of different pH solutions. (4, 7, and 10). So I think the graph kind of shows this but we found that the most oxygen was produced at the pH level 7. (FUN FACT: which is normal by the way!) It produced less oxygen at the pH levels 4 and 10.
In my research on enzymes this is something interesting I learned: Superoxide Dismutase, or SOD, is a metalloenzyme. SOD plays an extremely important role in the protection of all life-systems. The enzyme superoxide dismutase, or SOD, catalyzes into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD is present in essentially every cell in the body. The two major forms of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in humans are the mitochondrial manganese SOD and the cytosolic copper/zinc SOD. When organisms cause serious disease, it takes the body a very long time to recover, and depending on the strength of the patient the bacteria may win. The ability of the enzyme to provide some protection to organisms is shown by the existence of a motor neuron disease in individuals who have point mutations in SOD. The absence of SOD may lead to a form of anemia. A number of tumour cells have been found to be deficient in SOD. The absence of SOD activity seems to support cancer. In addition, SOD mops up the superoxide. Amyotophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s Disease, is a crippling neuromuscular disease that usually attacks people between the ages of fifty and sixty. Strong evidence links ALS to mutations in the SOD1 gene. When the SOD gene is mutated, the enzyme is also mutated. The mutated enzyme loses its anti-oxidant effect. Inhibiting this enzyme could slow or stop the degeneration of nerve cells, which leads to the disruption of muscle control in ALS patients. As an enzyme, SOD has particular value as an antioxidant that can help to protect against cell destruction. It has the ability to neutralize superoxide, one of the most damaging free radical substances in nature. Like so many other protective compounds which naturally occur in the body, it decreases with age, making cells much more vulnerable to the oxidants which cause aging and disease. It occurs naturally in broccoli, Brussels's sprouts, wheat grass and in the majority of green plants.
This is my last blog for the semester because now it is time for Christmas Break. Even though this was the most challenging thing in Biology for me this year I think I understand enzymes pretty well now.
MERRY CHRISTMAS!
and
HAPPY NEW YEAR!
SEE ALL OF MY BIOLOGY FRIENDS NEXT YEAR IN 2011!
Our group had a simple setup. (or so Michael said, didn't seem that simple to me) We mixed 3 ml of water with 3 ml of hydrogen peroxide. We added the enzyme yeast to make a chemical reaction that would make oxygen. The yeast, our enzyme, breaks the oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide and releases the oxygen into the air. Using a pressure probe we measured the pressure coming from the chemical reaction. We did our experiment three different ways. In the first we changed the amount of enzyme we put in. In the second we changed the temperature of the solution that we put the enzyme in to make the reaction. In the third experiment we changed the water in the solution to a pH solution. We did each experiment 3 times so we could calculate accurate data for each experiment.
Here are the different graphs we used to collect our data from the experiment.
In this graph we changed the amount of enzyme that we added to the solution. Or a simpler way to say it!...We changed the amount of drops we added to the mixture in the test tube. (10, 20, 30, or 40 drops.) The graph has a constant slope. I'm going to say what this means in two ways.
SIMPLE WAY: The more enzyme thats in the solution the more pressure there is.
SMART WAY: The speed at which the reaction occurs is a direct result of the ratio of the enzyme to the solution. (thank you Michael for helping me come up with that! =])
In this graph we changed the temperature of the solution where the reaction is taking place. The simple explanation....We changed the temperature of the stuff in the test tube. (0, 25, 38, or 80 degrees Celsius.) We kept the yeast at 25 drops every time.
From this graph we noted that freezing the solution at 0 degrees Celsius and heating it up to 80 degrees Celsius was not good on the reaction. When the temperature got to hot the graph decreased rapidly. This is because when there is to much heat is causes the enzymes to become denatured. (FUN FACT: Denatured means the shape changed...you know you can learn a lot looking at other peoples blogs.) We found out the best temperature for making oxygen was between 25 and 38 degrees Celsius. This is where the highest rate of reaction occurred.
Ok this was the part in the experiment that I was really confused. So I decided to look at my fellow group members blogs( Michael and Kyle H) to try and understand what went on better. Well....that made me more confused. Kyle said that the graph was messed up because Sierra(She was also in our group) couldn't measure out drops right....So there was one thing they had in common so I am going to talk about that.
In this graph we changed the 3ml of water in the solution to 3 ml of different pH solutions. (4, 7, and 10). So I think the graph kind of shows this but we found that the most oxygen was produced at the pH level 7. (FUN FACT: which is normal by the way!) It produced less oxygen at the pH levels 4 and 10.
In my research on enzymes this is something interesting I learned: Superoxide Dismutase, or SOD, is a metalloenzyme. SOD plays an extremely important role in the protection of all life-systems. The enzyme superoxide dismutase, or SOD, catalyzes into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD is present in essentially every cell in the body. The two major forms of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in humans are the mitochondrial manganese SOD and the cytosolic copper/zinc SOD. When organisms cause serious disease, it takes the body a very long time to recover, and depending on the strength of the patient the bacteria may win. The ability of the enzyme to provide some protection to organisms is shown by the existence of a motor neuron disease in individuals who have point mutations in SOD. The absence of SOD may lead to a form of anemia. A number of tumour cells have been found to be deficient in SOD. The absence of SOD activity seems to support cancer. In addition, SOD mops up the superoxide. Amyotophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s Disease, is a crippling neuromuscular disease that usually attacks people between the ages of fifty and sixty. Strong evidence links ALS to mutations in the SOD1 gene. When the SOD gene is mutated, the enzyme is also mutated. The mutated enzyme loses its anti-oxidant effect. Inhibiting this enzyme could slow or stop the degeneration of nerve cells, which leads to the disruption of muscle control in ALS patients. As an enzyme, SOD has particular value as an antioxidant that can help to protect against cell destruction. It has the ability to neutralize superoxide, one of the most damaging free radical substances in nature. Like so many other protective compounds which naturally occur in the body, it decreases with age, making cells much more vulnerable to the oxidants which cause aging and disease. It occurs naturally in broccoli, Brussels's sprouts, wheat grass and in the majority of green plants.
This is my last blog for the semester because now it is time for Christmas Break. Even though this was the most challenging thing in Biology for me this year I think I understand enzymes pretty well now.
MERRY CHRISTMAS!
and
HAPPY NEW YEAR!
SEE ALL OF MY BIOLOGY FRIENDS NEXT YEAR IN 2011!
Wednesday, December 15, 2010
PKU Webquest
Phenylketonuria is a long word! In my blog whenever I mean to say Phenylketonuria I am going to say PKU. To help understand this diesese we were given some questions and websites to look at. There was so much information on the websites that I couldn't put it all down, but I got as much as I could. Here are the links to the sites that Mr. Ludwig gave us.
PKU is a condition where phenylalanine builds up in the body. It is a very rare disease and is inherited. Phenylalanine is a building block of protein and is a natural substance. Mostly all babies get tested for PKU when they are just born. The test used is a heel prick test.
Your Genes, Your Health: Phenylketonuria
NSPKU Home Page
Texas Department of Health Genetic Disorders
Phenylketonuria - The Genetics
PKU is a condition where phenylalanine builds up in the body. It is a very rare disease and is inherited. Phenylalanine is a building block of protein and is a natural substance. Mostly all babies get tested for PKU when they are just born. The test used is a heel prick test.
To help us understand PKU better we were given questions to try and answer. They are kind of hard to understand at first but once you get to reading the sites it is easier.
1. What enzyme is most commonly defective in people with phenylketonuria?
The most enzyme that is most commonly defective in people with phenylketonuria is the PAH Enzyme.
2. What reaction does this enzyme catalyze? (What is the substrate and what product is produced?)
A person infected with PKU can get dangerously high phenylalanine in the brain. This can cause mental retardation and epilepsy.
3. Describe the symptoms of phenylketonuria?
The symptoms in children that have undetected PKU are smaller then normal head, lighter skin and hair then unaffected family members,
4. What causes the symptoms of PKU, the lack of a substance or the buildup of one?
The symptoms of PKU are caused by the lack of the enzyme to break down the amino acid which builds it up. The build up of the amino acid causes the symptoms. The state of high levels of phenylalanine is called Hyperphenylalaninaemia. (long word I know!) Hyperphenylalaninaemia can cause brain damage.
5. How common is phenylketonuria? How is it treated?
PKU is found in about 1 in 10,000 births in Caucasians and East Asians. There are some ethnic groups that have higher rates. For example PKU is extremely rare in Africans.
As soon as children are diagnosed they must keep a low- protein diet and stay on the diet as long as they possibly can. Most experts recommend that people infected with PKU diet for life. Phenylalanine is found in the protein part of food. This is why the treatment is to keep a low protein diet. Foods that are not in this diet are meat, cheese, poultry, eggs, and milk.
Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration, and Energy
Sierra, Sidney, and I all worked on a glogster together. This was my first time using glogster and I really liked it. There will probably be future glogsters on my blog in the future. =) But for now here is our glogster on Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration, and Energy.
Friday, December 10, 2010
Photosynthesis "Dry Lab"
So instead of doing an experiment and writing down the observations, this week we went backwards. We were given a set of observations and we had to write the procedure that went along with this experiment. It was kind of hard for me at first but then I looked at other peoples blogs and that helped me understand. So here is my Photosynthesis "Dry Lab."
Materials
Procedure
Observations:
Water plus BTB is blue-green.
Water is neutral. It changes to the color of the substance that is put in it.
Water plus BTB and an Aquarium Snail is yellow in light.
Animals respire (breath) and they let Carbon Dioxide out. Carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid. When there is acid in BTB and water it turns to yellow.
Water plus BTB plus elodea is blue-green in light.
Green plants respire. Then they photosynthesize and use the Carbon Dioxide. The plant keeps the water from acid it stays a neutral at the blue green color.
Water plus BTB plus a snail plus elodea is blue-green in light.
The plant and snail respire. But the plant photosynthesizes and uses the Carbon Dioxide so it turns to blue green and there is no carbonic acid.
Water plus BTB plus a snail plus elodea is yellow in dark.
The snail and plant respire. Since there is no light the plant can't photosynthesize. The carbon dioxide is still in the water so it stays an acid and the color stays yellow.
Conclusion:
When BTB is added to water it turns yellow because Carbon Dioxide and water mixed together make a carbonic acid. It stays blue with just water because water is a neutral.
Materials
- Distilled Water
- Bromothymol Blue (BTB)
- Aquarium Snail
- Elodea
- Large test tubes
- Light
- Dark space
Procedure
- Put 15 ml of water and 15 drops of BTB in a large test tube and let it sit for 3 hours under light. Record your observations.
- Put 15 ml of water, 15 drops of BTB, and an aquarium snail in a large test tube and let it sit for 3 hours under light. Record your observations.
- Put 15 ml of water, 15 drops of BTB, and a elodea (funny plant) in a large test tube and let it sit for 3 hours under light. Record your observations.
- Put 15ml of water, 15 drops of BTB, an aquarium snail, and an elodea in a large test tube in the light for 3 hours. Record your observations.
- Repeat Step 4 procedure but put it in the dark for three hours and let it sit. Record your observations.
Observations:
Water plus BTB is blue-green.
Water is neutral. It changes to the color of the substance that is put in it.
Water plus BTB and an Aquarium Snail is yellow in light.
Animals respire (breath) and they let Carbon Dioxide out. Carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid. When there is acid in BTB and water it turns to yellow.
Water plus BTB plus elodea is blue-green in light.
Green plants respire. Then they photosynthesize and use the Carbon Dioxide. The plant keeps the water from acid it stays a neutral at the blue green color.
Water plus BTB plus a snail plus elodea is blue-green in light.
The plant and snail respire. But the plant photosynthesizes and uses the Carbon Dioxide so it turns to blue green and there is no carbonic acid.
Water plus BTB plus a snail plus elodea is yellow in dark.
The snail and plant respire. Since there is no light the plant can't photosynthesize. The carbon dioxide is still in the water so it stays an acid and the color stays yellow.
Conclusion:
When BTB is added to water it turns yellow because Carbon Dioxide and water mixed together make a carbonic acid. It stays blue with just water because water is a neutral.
Tuesday, November 30, 2010
Cell Structure-Plants and Animals
To teach you about cell structure I tried the site bubbl.us. I DO NOT RECOMMEND TRYING IT. I got so frustrated trying to organize all my bubbles. I think I got it organized enough to where you could read it.
I went to a site where I found out a lot about animal cells. There was a lot of information that I could not get on my web so I am posting the site here.
I also went to a website to find out information about plant cells. I learned a lot! Here is the link to the site.
And here is my huge web about cell structure:
I went to a site where I found out a lot about animal cells. There was a lot of information that I could not get on my web so I am posting the site here.
I also went to a website to find out information about plant cells. I learned a lot! Here is the link to the site.
And here is my huge web about cell structure:
Monday, November 15, 2010
Microscope Week
I think my favorite thing so far has been one kind of pond water. There was so much in it! We saw a little guy that sucked up everything in its area and it kept getting bigger and bigger. It was amazing to see.
Tuesday, November 9, 2010
Carbohydrates- The book is used!
So it took me awhile to get Carbohydrates down. I did about half a lab(I missed the other half because I was sick), took a quiz.....twice (I bombed the first time and got a B the second time....I would have aced it but I mixed two sugars up even though I knew what they were! I'm still mad at myself for that!), and now I am doing this blog post. I learned a little from each activity I did but most of the learning came out of yes......reading the book. I'm starting to think our Biology book is useful in this class. I still think I can learn a lot more about carbohydrates. I may understand them now but I still see myself studying a lot before that final comes. But for now here is all the information I read about last night and learned the past few weeks in class.
The three elements in all carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most of the carbohydrates have a carbon to hydrogen to oxygen ratio of 1:2:1(fact from the book!). There are two times the number of hydrogen atoms then oxygen atoms. The word carbohydrate has single sugar molecules and also sugar chains. The length of the chains can go anywhere from a few sugars to hundreds of sugars. The long chains are called polymers.
Carbohydrates are made up of saccharides. There are three type of saccharides: mono, di, and poly. Two of the most common examples of monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. (FUN FACT: Glucose is a hexagon of carbon elements and fructose is a pentagon of carbons.) Some examples of disaccharides are sucrose and lactose. Some examples of polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.
Monosaccharides have only a single sugar molecule. They are called simple sugars. The molecular formula for a monosaccharide is some multiple of CH(2)O. This suggests that every carbon is bonded to an H and an -OH. That is not strictly correct. (In the above line the 2 is supposed to be a small 2 near the bottom of the H but I did not know how to do that on the computer.) Sugars have a lot of hydroxyl groups and because of this polar functional group they are soluble in water. (another fact from the book! see how useful it is?!)
Monosaccharides often do not stay mono. Monosaccharides bond together and make disaccharides. This happens during a dehydration reaction. For example glucose and fructose make sucrose. Or two glucoses can combine and make maltose. (okay so just for a little funny story...I learned the underlined facts when Mr. Ludwig and Michael were arguing about it after school!) Sucrose is another name for table sugar. It is a disaccharide of special interest because sucrose is the form in which sugar is transported in plants. (FUN FACT: Sucrose is the sugar used to sweeten our food)
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or many monosaccharides combined together. Another way to describe them is complex carbohydrates. There are some types of polysaccharides that function as short- term energy storing molecules. These have to be storage molecules because they are not as soluble in water and they are much larger than a normal sugar. Also, because they are bigger they cannot easily pass through the plasma membrane. The polysaccahride is broken down to release sugar molecules when an organism needs energy. Starch is often found in plants and glycogen is used in animals. The complex carbohydrate cellulose is used in plants to form a cell wall.
I hope dear reader(I'm pretty positive this is Mr. Ludwig, but for anyone else too) that you learned a few things about carbohydrates today. But even a little more I hoped you learn that you can learn things from anywhere. Any resource you have use it! It can be an experiment, a quiz, an article on the computer, the book, or even a conversation between your teacher and a really smart kid!
The three elements in all carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most of the carbohydrates have a carbon to hydrogen to oxygen ratio of 1:2:1(fact from the book!). There are two times the number of hydrogen atoms then oxygen atoms. The word carbohydrate has single sugar molecules and also sugar chains. The length of the chains can go anywhere from a few sugars to hundreds of sugars. The long chains are called polymers.
Carbohydrates are made up of saccharides. There are three type of saccharides: mono, di, and poly. Two of the most common examples of monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. (FUN FACT: Glucose is a hexagon of carbon elements and fructose is a pentagon of carbons.) Some examples of disaccharides are sucrose and lactose. Some examples of polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.
Monosaccharides have only a single sugar molecule. They are called simple sugars. The molecular formula for a monosaccharide is some multiple of CH(2)O. This suggests that every carbon is bonded to an H and an -OH. That is not strictly correct. (In the above line the 2 is supposed to be a small 2 near the bottom of the H but I did not know how to do that on the computer.) Sugars have a lot of hydroxyl groups and because of this polar functional group they are soluble in water. (another fact from the book! see how useful it is?!)
Monosaccharides often do not stay mono. Monosaccharides bond together and make disaccharides. This happens during a dehydration reaction. For example glucose and fructose make sucrose. Or two glucoses can combine and make maltose. (okay so just for a little funny story...I learned the underlined facts when Mr. Ludwig and Michael were arguing about it after school!) Sucrose is another name for table sugar. It is a disaccharide of special interest because sucrose is the form in which sugar is transported in plants. (FUN FACT: Sucrose is the sugar used to sweeten our food)
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or many monosaccharides combined together. Another way to describe them is complex carbohydrates. There are some types of polysaccharides that function as short- term energy storing molecules. These have to be storage molecules because they are not as soluble in water and they are much larger than a normal sugar. Also, because they are bigger they cannot easily pass through the plasma membrane. The polysaccahride is broken down to release sugar molecules when an organism needs energy. Starch is often found in plants and glycogen is used in animals. The complex carbohydrate cellulose is used in plants to form a cell wall.
I hope dear reader(I'm pretty positive this is Mr. Ludwig, but for anyone else too) that you learned a few things about carbohydrates today. But even a little more I hoped you learn that you can learn things from anywhere. Any resource you have use it! It can be an experiment, a quiz, an article on the computer, the book, or even a conversation between your teacher and a really smart kid!
Monday, November 8, 2010
Fruit Loops-Protein Molecules and Collagens
In class we did an activity where we stringed fruit loops together on a string. Can you guess what this is supposed to represent? Protein Molecules!! This was probably the best way Mr. Ludwig could of taught protein molecules to me because I love fruit loops! (one of my favorite parts was eating them afterwords)
This is what I learned:
Protein Molecules have 20 different amino acids. (we didn't have 20 different colors to represent them but that's where a highschoolers imagination comes to play). Amino acids are molecules. They are composed of an amino group and an acidic group. There is a third group known as the R group. (this group has everything else that comes in and joins the protein). This group is what gives the proteins different characteristics.
When you combine amino acids you get peptides. Peptides are a covalent bond between the acid group of one amino acid and an amino group of another amino acid. When you combine peptides you get polypeptides.
Proteins can have many different functions. For example they can be enzymes, provide support, transport substances, defend the body, and regulate metabolism.
After we made strands of protein molecules we combined with other people to make different kinds of proteins. Sierra, Sidney, and I braided ours together and made an example of collagen. This was not the only way you could combine them. Other groups in class combined theirs to make globular protein. You can tell the difference between them because a collagen is a strand and a globular protein is a huge glob.
Collagen is a type of protein. It is made of fibers and it connects and supports body tissues. Tissues it connects are skin, bone, tendons, muscles, and cartilage. Collagen is present supporting internal body organs and is can be found in teeth. Actually there are 25 types of collagen in the human body. Some people say it is the glue that holds the human body together. If a body didn't have collagen we would fall apart! (but the collagen in our body isn't made of fruit loops! :-) ) Collagen is very strong and is different from many other proteins.
Collagen can be found inside and outside the cell walls. It's fibers play a major part in the external structure of cells. Collagen plays a major part in the body and can be used in medicine. The organ collagen is mainly associated with is the skin. It helps provide skin with flexibility, strength, and resilience. Collagen loses its structure when it is heated.
There are several types of collagen.
Type 1: is the long, simple chain we made in class. It has three polypeptide chains. It can weave together and make fibrils. Fibrils are the space between cells.
Type 4: This is pretty much like type 1. You add a head on one end and a tail on the other end. When you get four type 4's together the heads come together in the middle and the tails spread out in like the shape of an X. They form a dense mat of them.
I only know about these two types of collagen because the guy that taught it to me only knew about these two. ;-)
This is what I learned:
Protein Molecules have 20 different amino acids. (we didn't have 20 different colors to represent them but that's where a highschoolers imagination comes to play). Amino acids are molecules. They are composed of an amino group and an acidic group. There is a third group known as the R group. (this group has everything else that comes in and joins the protein). This group is what gives the proteins different characteristics.
When you combine amino acids you get peptides. Peptides are a covalent bond between the acid group of one amino acid and an amino group of another amino acid. When you combine peptides you get polypeptides.
Proteins can have many different functions. For example they can be enzymes, provide support, transport substances, defend the body, and regulate metabolism.
Collagen can be found inside and outside the cell walls. It's fibers play a major part in the external structure of cells. Collagen plays a major part in the body and can be used in medicine. The organ collagen is mainly associated with is the skin. It helps provide skin with flexibility, strength, and resilience. Collagen loses its structure when it is heated.
There are several types of collagen.
Type 1: is the long, simple chain we made in class. It has three polypeptide chains. It can weave together and make fibrils. Fibrils are the space between cells.
Type 4: This is pretty much like type 1. You add a head on one end and a tail on the other end. When you get four type 4's together the heads come together in the middle and the tails spread out in like the shape of an X. They form a dense mat of them.
I only know about these two types of collagen because the guy that taught it to me only knew about these two. ;-)
Fluid Mosaic Model
I learned so much while doing this poster. There are many parts in a membrane. On our poster we had the transmembrane protein, cytoplasm, glycoprotein, and many other parts! One thing I learned while researching cells was that Glyco means sugar. So anything that has glyco attached to it means it has sugar on it. For example a glycolipid is a lipid with sugar attached. It is the same with a glycoprotein.
Another part of the cell is the transmembrane protein. When I first tried to Google this I came up very confused. The definition I found did not help me understand at all. Then Mr. Ludwig said to break down the word into parts and figure out each part and then I will be able to understand the word as a whole. Well I know trans means across, like the trans continental is a train that goes across the country. Across being the key word. So a transmembrane protein is a protein that goes across the membrane.
So I wrote the first part of my blog and got to thinking this is all I know! I only know the parts of the membrane and what glyco and trans means. So this kind of scared me but thankfully today in class Mr. Ludwig said that was the point. Last week we were learning the parts of the membrane and this week we are learning the functions of everything. So stayed tuned for a continuing blog!
Friday, October 8, 2010
Biology- It's not easy
So I have spent almost a quarter now in Biology. One thing I really understand now is Acids and Bases. All I had to do was focus and actually work on it instead of cruising facebook. I also really understand Water Properties and how they work now. I'm thinking it just takes me a little bit longer to understand science then at the pace we were going at. I just have to make sure I don't get distracted on my computer doing something else that I shouldn't be doing. Something I really need to work on is carbohydrates and sugars. I'm having a hard time understanding them. But I know if I stay more focused in class I can keep up and understand things better.
Thursday, October 7, 2010
Acids and Bases.....Uhh
What makes an acid an acid?
Acids make things taste sour. Vinegar and lemon juice are both sour because they are acids. Acids are corrosive to metals, change litmus red, and become less acidic when they are mixed with acids. They also taste sour. A scientist named Arrhenius suggested that acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and can dissolve in water to release hydrogen ions into solution. Arrhenius's suggestion can explain why acids have similar properties to each other.
What makes a base a base?
Bases are different from acids. Bases feel slippery and change litmus blue instead of red. They also bacome less basic when they are mixed with acids. Arrhenius said that bases are substances that dissolve in water to release hydroxide ions into solution. An example of a base is sodium hydroxide. All bases are similar in their properties and they all release OH-.
Neautralization is the idea that acids and bases counteract each other. The idea is that a base makes an acid weaker and an acid makes a base weaker.
Why is water neutral?
Water is neutral becauase the hydrogen negative and OH positive are the same amount.
How do antacids work?
Antacids work by increasing the PH level of stomach acid. They work by neutralizing acid and coating the stomach. The opposite of an acid is a base and that is what an antacid is. Antacids can treat symptoms like heartburn and gastritis.
Acids make things taste sour. Vinegar and lemon juice are both sour because they are acids. Acids are corrosive to metals, change litmus red, and become less acidic when they are mixed with acids. They also taste sour. A scientist named Arrhenius suggested that acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and can dissolve in water to release hydrogen ions into solution. Arrhenius's suggestion can explain why acids have similar properties to each other.
What makes a base a base?
Bases are different from acids. Bases feel slippery and change litmus blue instead of red. They also bacome less basic when they are mixed with acids. Arrhenius said that bases are substances that dissolve in water to release hydroxide ions into solution. An example of a base is sodium hydroxide. All bases are similar in their properties and they all release OH-.
Neautralization is the idea that acids and bases counteract each other. The idea is that a base makes an acid weaker and an acid makes a base weaker.
Why is water neutral?
Water is neutral becauase the hydrogen negative and OH positive are the same amount.
How do antacids work?
Antacids work by increasing the PH level of stomach acid. They work by neutralizing acid and coating the stomach. The opposite of an acid is a base and that is what an antacid is. Antacids can treat symptoms like heartburn and gastritis.
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